Sample Persuasive Essay on the Subject of Raising the Minimum Wage

<h1>Sample Persuasive Essay on the Subject of Raising the Minimum Wage</h1><p>The thought of an exposition to help the case for raising the lowest pay permitted by law has a few focuses. Notwithstanding, in the event that you are composing a paper you should consistently recollect that you are composing an exposition and you should consistently utilize your creative mind and creativity.</p><p></p><p>When Steven A. Abrout composed his book, 'Raising the Minimum Wage, Why You Can't Count on the Government,' it is no big surprise that he needed to instruct and inspire his perusers to help the expansion. For the individuals who are keen regarding the matter, this book is definitely justified even despite the time and exertion. His book offers numerous valuable bits of knowledge, bits of knowledge that we would all be able to use so as to make our help for an increase.</p><p></p><p>In the book, About starts with an introduc tion and clarification of his experience and the reasons that he accepts that raising the lowest pay permitted by law is an important activity. We at that point see instances of why we ought not simply consider this a business issue, but instead as a good and human issue. Abrout's composed clarification in the prelude and in the rest of the book can be utilized to help his proposition and further propel others to help this cause.</p><p></p><p>The second area of the book is 'The reason Raise the Minimum Wage?' The third segment is 'Misleading Economic Argument,' and the fourth segment is 'Argumentum in Taylor's Formula.' If you are keen on the flexibly and request hypothesis, at that point this is an extraordinary book to peruse. Any individual who is keen on find out about this subject, or is eager to utilize their creative mind, can utilize this information.</p><p></p><p>In the fifth segment, 'Genuine Economic Value of the Disutility of Unemployment,' About investigates the genuine estimation of joblessness to the economy. This area is specifically noteworthy to any individual who has composed a report, has a financial analyst doled out to them or somebody who is pushing a raise in the lowest pay permitted by law. This segment is intriguing and important data to the peruser. We should recall that when we are composing articles we are not simply addressing ourselves.</p><p></p><p>The 6th segment of the book is 'The Value of the Nonmonetary Benefits of an Increase in the Minimum Wage.' Using instances of genuine working Americans, Abrout offers backing to his proposition that increments in the lowest pay permitted by law will largy affect the economy, assisting with supporting independent companies and maybe the working poor.</p><p></p><p>Lastly, the seventh segment of the book is 'The Misuse of Economics by Proponents of a Minimum Wage Increase.' Using the consequen ces of a review of the normal individual, Abrout finds that the normal individual can not comprehend monetary information, regardless of whether it is introduced in an engaging manner. This data isn't straightforward, however is a significant segment of the data required for an essay.</p>

The Newly Leaked Secret to Physician Assistant Graduate Admission Essay Samples Disclosed

<h1>The Newly Leaked Secret to Physician Assistant Graduate Admission Essay Samples Disclosed </h1> <h2>Getting the Best Physician Assistant Graduate Admission Essay Samples </h2> <p>It's additionally essential to verify you have the entirety of the right and complete subtleties. Our administration will contemplate your recommendations, take a gander at your criticism, meet the entirety of the moment details.</p> <p>Writing a work in progress is a crucial piece of the creative cycle an opportunity to get your first proposals and considerations down on paper. Inside this situation, how you compose the letter can vacillate generally, in view of what you're endeavoring to state and the story you must tell. Despite the fact that your letter of intrigue should be completely one of a kind, this delineation may give you a few proposals to begin. </p> <p>Our equipped essayists understand that time is essential. As a result, going through cash to manage your expositions might be testing. So have confidence that there's quite often a specialist author accessible for your critical undertaking. Consequently, whenever you need to manage the compose my paper issue, you can wager that our certified faculty will be on reserve to help you in any capacity they can. </p> <h2> New Questions About Physician Assistant Graduate Admission Essay Samples </h2> <p>Since you may see, the organization of the master's level college application exposition is incredibly like different sorts of articles. Last form will be perfect! </p> <p>Just as you're not anticipated to be a Shakespeare in your articles, you aren't. It is a particular article which tells about your absolute best characteristics. Stephen's paper is very viable. Disregarding uncommon evaluations, an ineffectively composed exposition furnishes you with a poor name. </p> <p>When you consider how to compose a school paper, the absolute first thing you should consider is the best approach to sort out it. Make a short rundown of focuses you need to stress in your confirmation exposition. So should you have to utilize school paper essayist on the web, we're only the individuals that you need to contact. Every school has its own specific topic and you need to consider how to design a school application paper contingent upon the school's specific prerequisites. </p> <p>As one may take note of, an unrivaled article can let you understand your fantasies, and the dreadful paper can constrain you to come up short. Any paper will be composed on schedule at a moderate cost. What's an examination paper. Instructions to make an examination paper. </p> <h2> What You Don't Know About Physician Assistant Graduate Admission Essay Samples </h2> <p>Before you compose your confirmations paper you must have an understanding of your destinations and the manner by which your encounters to date set you up for seeking after your points. Try not to permit your fantasies crash once you can make them more splendid. </p> <p>If you're looking for one-on-one direction, look at EssayEdge.com. That is the thing that makes us the absolute best custom composing administration you may trust. A couple of the points of interest that you can get when you recruit our administrations consolidate the following. You can have confidence that whenever you need our composing administration, we'll be accessible to help you process them. </p> <p>If you scan for the perfect opening and defer composing till you find only the ideal point, expressing, or similitude you may not ever compose your alumni affirmations exposition. After you get a work done from us you will return again on the off chance that you need help with another of your expositions. Subsequently, the article should harmonize with the candidate's characteristics and interests with the goal for it to help the chance of affirmation. School affirmations papers probably won't have an exact cutoff on length with respect to word tally or number of pages, however it doesn't mean you should compose a novel! </p>

A Brief Guide To Sonography Research Paper Topics

A Brief Guide To Sonography Research Paper TopicsSonography examine papers are about the cutting edge hardware and procedures of the present emergency clinics. The most fundamental techniques are talked about in these papers, however this doesn't imply that analysts don't make a special effort to locate the most recent innovative instruments and strategies for additional development.One of the most widely recognized sonography look into papers theme is that of ultrasound imaging. This includes a progression of checks, including strategies, instruments, hardware, procedures, and frameworks, and clinical headways, for example, the new age of ultrasound machines. The main specialists in this field are the ones who comprehend the laws of material science, particularly with respect to sound waves, and they can apply their insight and comprehension so as to create excellent ultrasound images.When it goes to the life structures of the body, the most significant and principle sonography exam ine paper themes incorporate ultrasound representation. Ultrasound innovation permits specialists to rapidly and effectively envision the organs of the body that are having issues and afterward produce fitting remedies. A point by point portrayal of how to utilize the hardware and what might be best for the patients can be found in numerous sonography inquire about papers.The procedures of sonography are significant and this encourages the scientists to comprehend the nuts and bolts of ultrasound imaging, for example, how to put tests into a patient's body. Understanding the correct arrangement of tests is basic when doing research papers on sonography technology.Another profoundly utilized research paper subjects is on demonstrative imaging. In this field, investigate utilizes incredible machines to deliver pictures and records of the body that can help in deciding the state of the patient. There are numerous types of this innovation including CT filters, MRI outputs, and X-rays.Be sides the essential research papers, there are additionally logical papers which take a gander at techniques for forestalling complexities after heart catheterization. This is finished by controlling the blood stream and oxygenation by utilizing a blood sack and a checking gadget, a system which was generally utilized previously and which is presently known to cause confusions in certain patients. A portion of the investigations create results on small scale fluidic procedures that permit specialists to quickly take pictures of parts of the body utilizing ultrasound technology.The look into subjects introduced here were referenced just to give you a thought of the numerous sorts of ultrasound inquire about papers out there. You should search for the ones that fit your needs and that are identified with your specialized topic so as to see the subtleties in detail.

Research Paper Topics on Animal Farm

Research Paper Topics on Animal FarmA well-researched essay on research paper topics on animal farm, or the abuses of workers in various industries around the world will help you out with your grade. If you are asked to write on these topics, it is advisable that you study up on these topics before you start writing. This will give you an idea on what exactly to write about and how to structure your essay. If you are unsure on what to write about, you can ask a professor or a teacher to help you out.As much as possible, avoid discussing topics on animal farm. Although there is no shortage of topics that are directly related to this, many students tend to think that they are off limits and shy away from them. Instead, you should focus on topics related to other subjects such as labor abuse, corporate responsibility, environmental protection, human rights and political reform.Because these are your research paper topics on animal farm, it is important that you decide on one topic which you would like to write about and stick to it. You can choose the topic based on your research and idea. This will also help you prioritize your assignment and determine how much time you have for writing your essay.Another way of avoiding topics on animal farm is by outlining the information you want to write about in the first draft of your essay. The outline will help you focus on one topic at a time and write down the important points. After you have all the information you need, you can move to the next topic.However, if you decide to stray from your topic, you can do so, but make sure that you make note of the things you did so that you will be able to draw them back later on in the essay. Always remember that no topic is off limits.Research paper topics on animal farm and the dangers of factory farming are usually controversial. This is because the animal rights groups and the factory farming groups always try to minimize the discussion and debate about these topics. They us e various techniques and strategies to defeat these debates. However, this does not mean that there is no room for compromise.Each side must have the opportunity to discuss their arguments and ethical issues with the others. The more effective ways of doing this is through consensus building. When people realize that they cannot win over the other side, they have to reach a mutual agreement or a compromise.This is the ideal situation and will allow you to gain maximum exposure and understanding of the topics you wrote about. This is the best way to win the debate and to minimize the chances of the opposition to win the argument.

Anti-colonization and Dehumanization in Aphra Behns Oroonoko

Anti-colonization and Dehumanization in Aphra Behns Oroonoko In Oroonoko, Aphra Behn sheds light on the horrors of slavery and expansionism that Britain was conducting while assembling its overseas empire. Behn paints the majority of the white colonists as unmitigated illustrations of greed, dishonesty, and brutality. Through these depraved individuals, Behn regularly articulates the barbarism innate in British nature as opposed to the African prince Oroonoko, whom is conveyed as the quintisential model of nobility, physical prowness, and honor. These reoccuring motifs apparent throughout the literary work reveal Behns intention of undermining the inhumane treatment of the colonized populice and the criticism of overseas expansion.†¦show more content†¦The narrator incontestably gives this implication when she states, They have a native justice which knows no fraud, and they understand no vice or cunning, but when they are taught by the white men (2185). The understanding that the Europeans have in fact, tainted the natives, is eviden t in the narrators words. In light of the fortitude in which the narrator takes in describing the purity of the native people, it can confidently be understanded that a metonymy is used substituting vice for evil. Thus, the implication is made that in terms of moral sensibility, the natives are far better than the European colonists. Such a distinction is made by Behn to exemplify the negative generalization and criticism of the Europeans in comparison to the colonized other. In this way, the idea of anti-colonization is conveyed. Behn also incorporates dishonorable traits in the white men that Oroonko meets throughout the story to convey her anti-colonization position, implying that they are not suited to engage in colonialism due to their dishonest nature. The hypocrisy and treachery that Behn illustrates in these characters in contrast to the more honorable Oroonoko, gives the idea that the British possessed a general predisposition towards greed, violence, and betrayal. For instance, the British slave trading captain initially befriends Oroonoko, gaining his trust at first, but later betrays him, condemning him to theShow MoreRelatedOroonoko Analysis1579 Words   |  7 PagesAnti-colonization and dehumanization in Oroonoko In Oroonoko, Aphra Behn sheds light on the horrors of slavery and expansionism that Britain was conducting while assembling its overseas empire. Behn paints the majority of the white colonists as unmitigated illustrations of greed, dishonesty, and brutality. Through these depraved individuals, Behn regularly articulates the barbarism innate in British nature as opposed to the African prince Oroonoko, whom is conveyed as the quintisential model ofRead MoreAnalysis Of Oroonoko By Aphra Behn937 Words   |  4 PagesAphra Behn’s Oroonoko; or The Royal Slave, highlights the immorality of European colonization by focusing on how it serves as a means to corrupt the purity of foreign cultures and deliberately disrupts their way of life. There is an undeniable indication of cultural corruption throughout Behn’s work. The title itself, exemplifies the intricacy of Behn’s work, due to her blatant use of binary oppositions, in order to emphasize the conflicting views of both colonizer and slave. Slaves are unlikely

Opinions for Opinion Essay - Topics to Use When Writing

<h1>Opinions for Opinion Essay - Topics to Use When Writing</h1><p>Opinion articles are among the most well known composing subjects today and you have to realize how to compose these. There are various points you can utilize and this is the reason it is imperative to learn them so you will have the option to have a fruitful essay.</p><p></p><p>Opinions are regularly passionate and they are frequently communicated recorded as a hard copy. All things considered, you should be cautious and know about the amount you will be sincerely associated with the subject. On the off chance that you make the subject too passionate you won't have the option to successfully communicate your musings and rather you will probably wind up saying something that you lament. Here are a few plans to assist you with themes for sentiment essay.</p><p></p><p>Name it: You can think about a point that you think may intrigue others and utilize thei r names as a name for the subject. So you are not making the point for yourself but instead another person. By thinking about the subject from the point of view of someone else you will have the option to improve comprehension of what that individual would state about the topic.</p><p></p><p>One case of this is you could make a theme called 'The Sports World'. Rather than making your theme from the perspective of yourself you can begin by taking a gander at sports that others appreciate or something that others are viewing. As such you will have the option to show signs of improvement comprehension of what others may like and how they would see the point and your composing aptitudes will improve.</p><p></p><p>Make the theme about some different option from yourself: One thought that numerous individuals use is to make the subject about something you love. You can likewise do this on the off chance that you have companions who are into something. Indeed it is a smart thought to discover a subject that has more likenesses with what you are doing so as to improve your composing skills.</p><p></p><p>Think about the peruser: This one is identified with the last one. You need to ensure that the assessments you are introducing are ones that will engage the peruser. For this you have to consider their age gathering and their inclinations. You can likewise consider their sex and age.</p><p></p><p>Writing a compelling exposition is a craftsmanship and as such you have to set aside the effort to consider how you are going to introduce your thoughts and the data you need to incorporate. On the off chance that you utilize these tips when you are considering the subjects for assessment exposition you will be well en route to composing an incredible paper that will intrigue anybody you present it to.</p>

Essay Writing As Key To High Grades

<h1>Essay Writing As Key To High Grades</h1><p>With exposition composing as key to high evaluations, unmistakably figuring out how to compose an article is of most extreme significance. Understudies are progressively depending on articles for their state sanctioned grades and graduation necessities, and a few universities require papers as a major aspect of an understudy's applications.</p><p></p><p>Essay composing requires the author to think fundamentally, writing to help their contention and not making themselves look silly before a school affirmations official. Without a fundamental comprehension of how to structure an article, understudies can end up puzzled when confronted with inquiries regarding what data should be remembered for the paper and when they ought to incorporate it. This article will give a diagram of exposition composing and offer tips for compelling paper writing.</p><p></p><p>First, attempt to co mprehend what you're expounding on. You might need to go into your own theme considering a decent broad thought or you may need to have a nitty gritty point thought prepared. Ensure that your exposition's point is tied in with something applicable to your vocation objectives. Likewise, don't think about the subject as far as causing yourself to appear to be brilliant or sharp, which could subvert your argument.</p><p></p><p>Keep your primary concern as a top priority when composing your paper. In some cases, a basic story can acquire consideration than a confused, longer piece. On the off chance that you are composing for school affirmations, the primary concern of your article should sound good to an understudy who has taken school courses.</p><p></p><p>You'll should be explicit about what you need to state on the off chance that you are going to make your contention well. You ought to consistently begin by expressing your proposal an d afterward spread the supporting focuses and make certain to express your proposition plainly and concisely.</p><p></p><p>Give your peruser motivation to keep perusing your article. As you progress through your exposition, you should add to your theme by utilizing various subtleties. You can go through these subtleties to work to an end or other insight concerning your topic.</p><p></p><p>Remember that spelling and language structure are significant parts of composing a strong exposition. Try not to avoid this piece of the procedure. Thusly, you will assemble your exposition alongside the abilities you use when composing short stories and novels.</p>

Essay Writing Service - Sample of Admission Essay

<h1>Essay Writing Service - Sample of Admission Essay</h1><p>In request to get the greatest number of uses from understudies, the most mainstream technique these days is to sell tests of affirmation papers. This is extraordinary for both the gatherings. You acquire some cash and understudies can be liberated from their day by day schedules and occupied with the paper composing process.</p><p></p><p>First, you have to arrange your exposition test as indicated by the prerequisite. In the event that you make some little memories, it is smarter to recruit an exposition composing administration who can assemble an astonishing article for you inside a couple of hours. In any event they will have given you the premise to your paper, and on the off chance that you are an accomplished author, they will do all the monotonous research for you so you don't have to.</p><p></p><p>The most ideal approach to get these free examples is to email or mail the organization that gives you the examples to demand for tests of affirmation expositions. When they are printed, they can be given out at no charge.</p><p></p><p>In the scholarly world, this is one of the most mainstream techniques utilized by different organizations, colleges and schools. It is extraordinary to have the composed word in your grasp, however the truth of the matter is that understudies are progressively going to the web for composing papers.</p><p></p><p>To profit of the focal points offered by internet composing administration, the exposition must be submitted in PDF group. The exposition can be arranged, revised and added to different bits of substance dependent on the required specifications.</p><p></p><p>If you are an understudy, the best alternative is to compose the article yourself, particularly on the off chance that you have a touch of information about the subject. Numerous understudies lean toward this, as it offers a chance to have a more noteworthy encounter and do the schoolwork for the understudy. The creative cycle is likewise significantly more valuable than the ordinary pen and paper.</p><p></p><p>The web based composing administration offers all the administrations. Truly, there are numerous organizations offering free examples of confirmation articles. Ensure that the organization is really selling these examples; else, you will wind up paying for something you have not purchased.</p>

How to Write an Onision Essay the Right Way

<h1>How to Write an Onision Essay the Right Way</h1><p>Onision article composing is a troublesome assignment for some to perform however the errand shouldn't be. It very well may be a great deal of fun on the off chance that you comprehend what you're doing.</p><p></p><p>Onision exposition composing is the least fun piece of your web pornography profession. Onision needs you to accomplish the work for him and he needs you to be cheerful. This article will give you what you're fouling up when you're attempting to compose an Onision essay.</p><p></p><p>So for one thing, how about we investigate the one thing that the vast majority mess up. That one thing is the thing that try not to do as an Onision paper essayist. That thing isn't sending them through a formal structure.</p><p></p><p>Writing an Onision paper is definitely not a conventional activity. If you somehow managed to send somebody throug h a composed content, they will never truly get it. On the off chance that you are going to make an Onision exposition, you need to comprehend that you don't need to make it into a proper structure. Of course, you can compose a pleasant paper on why you think Onision is an extraordinary individual and he has the right to be revered yet there are different approaches to pass on the equivalent message.</p><p></p><p>Straight up, the most ideal approach to communicate as an Onision exposition author is by recounting to a story. You can recount to a tale about Onision, or you can recount to a tale about Onision recounting to an anecdote about something that transpired. I propose you recount to an anecdote about Onision recounting to a tale about something that happened to you.</p><p></p><p>This will assist you with exploring an alternate sort of composing. You will likewise have the option to acquire more thoughts since you will utilize wor ds that you know and you will have the option to utilize the apparatuses that you know. It is significantly simpler to cause a sentence in the event that you to can portray the activities of what you're discussing. At the point when you need to make an Onision paper, you will have significantly more opportunity to do this.</p><p></p><p>You likewise need to comprehend that when you are utilizing a proper structure to get a 'straight' story, you won't have the option to compose any sort of substance. You should utilize a straightforward method to portray reality. The motivation behind why you need to compose a straightforward, straight story is on the grounds that you will have the option to portray reality in the most basic and direct way possible.</p><p></p><p>There is a correct method to compose an Onision article and there is an incorrect method to compose an Onision paper. With this data, you will have the option to go out and compo se your Onision exposition without agonizing over accomplishing something wrong.</p>

Writing Essay - What Should You Consider When Writing Cohesive Essays?

<h1>Writing Essay - What Should You Consider When Writing Cohesive Essays?</h1><p>Cohesion in paper composing is a significant viewpoint that should be tended to. At the point when the crowd of the article or the inquiry to which the paper relates is probably going to profit by the understanding of the author has given, it is imperatively significant that these purposes of union are incorporated inside the exposition as a major aspect of the article content. Here we will consider a couple of various manners by which attachment can be tended to inside the composition of a paper. Remember that a few people will find that these methodologies work preferable for them over others.</p><p></p><p>A second manner by which to address attachment in article composing is to remember the peruser for the procedure of the composition. The peruser's capacity to hold the piece can be expanded with the consideration of perusing the article as it is composed as opposed to just perusing the whole thing. This is particularly evident when the article is in huge amounts.</p><p></p><p>Finally, another approach to utilize attachment in paper composing is to make it fun and fascinating. Not all papers are intended to be not kidding issues, and perusers need to have something that they can appreciate doing while at the same time perusing the exposition. By urging the peruser to partake in the composition of the paper, the article can be improved in various ways.</p><p></p><p>Finally, we should consider the general degree of the perusing crowd in the exposition, just as the effect the exposition will have on them. In the event that you compose an article and it offers to countless individuals, however none of them will appreciate understanding it, at that point your paper isn't probably going to have the ideal impact. Along these lines, notwithstanding making a design that interests to the perusers, y ou should make a paper that will urge perusers to come back to peruse it again.</p><p></p><p>Most article authors need to recall the significance of composing a rational bit of exposition content. It is practically difficult to locate an elegantly composed exposition that isn't durable, however an author must attempt to comprehend why they can't discover it, just as how to get it going. One way this can be cultivated is to utilize the procedures recorded previously. Notwithstanding, on the off chance that it is highly unlikely to address the issue of attachment, at that point the author should put forth a solid attempt to ensure that their paper is too composed as possible.</p><p></p><p>Remember that what you put into your article is what is going to make it meaningful by the perusers, and this turns out to be progressively significant the more you compose. On the off chance that you need your exposition to be elegantly composed, at th at point you should ensure that you do the best employment that you can. Making a structure for the exposition would one say one is approach to support this, however the focal point of the article content must stay on what is to be realized, and that is the main spot where the structure of the paper can have any impact.</p><p></p><p>When you are composing a paper, you need to think about the accompanying: Do you need to make a reasonable bit of exposition message, or would you like to make a fascinating exposition? Consolidate the two, or make a third procedure, to make the article that you need to read.</p>

Questions to Ask Yourself When Writing a Definition Essay

<h1>Questions to Ask Yourself When Writing a Definition Essay</h1><p>You may have an inquiry that is probably going to create you turmoil with regards to recognizing what to expound on when you compose a decent explicit themes for a definition exposition. All things considered, there are a few distinct sorts of inquiries that you should know about so as to get the subject of your exposition right. Set aside some effort to consider what every one of them is before you begin. This will assist with ensuring that you have the correct general subject for your own particular essay.</p><p></p><p>General questions ought to incorporate things like 'What is training?' or 'What is the historical backdrop of instruction?' These are acceptable general inquiries that you ought to have the option to reply with clearness on the off chance that you know about the rudiments of education.</p><p></p><p>Once you have responded to the inqui ry, you might need to dive into more points of interest. You should know why a few people accept that instruction is significant. You would then be able to think of a contention with regards to why there are such contrasts on whether training is significant. Or on the other hand you should include a tad of feeling to your reaction by addressing how training identifies with family life and how your youngsters gain from their parents.</p><p></p><p>An extra inquiry you should consider would be 'What are the contrasts among perusing and composing, and what is the distinction between general perusing and explicit perusing?' This inquiry makes certain to come up more than once in the event that you are an instructor. You may likewise need to consider these inquiries in the event that you are a parent who is thinking that its hard to expound on your child.</p><p></p><p>A great inquiry to pose would be 'The reason accomplish a few guardians ma ke a solid effort to show their kids?' What is so significant about buckling down that guardians feel it is so imperative to gotten their kids through such a test? Frequently the explanation for this is the parent needs to work to give the basics of the youngster's life, for example, food, haven, dress, and individual consideration. While a few guardians may decide to give these nuts and bolts to their kids in the solace of their own home, numerous others work in schools since it is the main way they can accommodate their youngsters' fundamental needs.</p><p></p><p>All of these general inquiries can be replied in various manners. You will likely concoct a contention for why training is critical to you. This may necessitate that you take a gander at your own youth, or maybe take a gander at the life of another person. This will permit you to perceive that there are a wide range of ways that you can take and you can choose which way you would like to follow.< ;/p><p></p><p>The last kind of general inquiry you might need to consider is, 'What are the advantages of decent training?' previously, numerous individuals accepted that the advantages of instruction were absolutely scholarly, yet now you might be confronted with your own one of a kind conditions and conclude that there are genuine advantages that a decent training can give. This inquiry will come up again on the off chance that you are doing an exposition on this subject, so it will be critical to consider the genuine advantages of education.</p><p></p><p>The assortment of inquiries that you can pose to yourself while doing a definition article on explicit points for a definition is about perpetual. Set aside some effort to consider your own inquiry and make sense of how to answer it appropriately in the event that you are composing a progressively point by point paper on the topic.</p>

War and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay - 1831 Words

In this era, war is considered to be a part of life and that the world will always have conflicts and the only way to resolve these conflicts is by military force. As of May 2014, there are multiple sources of conflict throughout the world, and a large majority of them result in war and tragedy. From the war in Iraq, threats from North Korea, and Russia creating friction with Ukraine, war surrounds and engulfs the world through media, via television sets that are commonly found in many households. Media has caused its viewers to become numb to the horrors of war and its aftermath. Many citizens no longer consider the death of the enemy as a tragic loss, they no longer wish for disputes to be settled orally. Citizens of the United Sates†¦show more content†¦Dresden was a city of â€Å"innocence,† that was targeted to ebb the spirits of German soldiers (â€Å"Firebombing of Dresden†). The bombs created a firestorm, and together it killed â€Å"as many as 135,000 people.† The bombing of Dresden had the highest death toll in World War II, even when compared to Hiroshima and Nagasaki (â€Å"Firebombing of Dresden†). The destruction of Dresden is found inhuman by most of society, including many people on the Allies’ side. â€Å"To lay waste so delicate a flower seems to many an act of the most heinous barbarity† (Valiunas). Dresden was perceived as an harmless and glorious town, and it is thought that its destruction should not have been a toll of war. The bombing of Dresden pushed War World II to its limits, and caused a great amount of disruption to Germany. The bombing of Dresden also became the nightmares and horror story of the war for those who were unfortunately present and witnessed it. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder often occurs after soldiers return to the â€Å"safety† of their own home. War World II sent home a great deal of soldiers who returned to America with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, how ever it was not acknowledge by the soldiers themselves. They took on their original duties, and continued living their lives as normal as possible, for â€Å"‘SocietyShow MoreRelatedIn Previous Conflicts And Wars, Post Traumatic Stress Disorders1812 Words   |  8 PagesIn previous conflicts and wars, Post Traumatic Stress Disorders was called soldier s heart, shell shock, or combat fatigue. We have to be grateful that today, doctors recognize the issues described by each of these terms as a distinct medical condition called posttraumatic stress disorder, or PTSD. PTSD can occur after a traumatic event such as combat, assault or a natural disaster. While the after affects of situations can cause stress, it is common after a trauma for those with PTSD to haveRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder: Post Vietnam War1945 Words   |  8 Pagesthat with every war, there always comes casualties. Soldiers can lose an arm or a leg, or even their life when they go to war. Unfortunat ely soldiers can even lose their minds because of war. Specifically, this research paper will focus on PTSD, or in other words: post traumatic stress disorder. PTSD has shown up as a factor from many wars, but for some reason, one war in particular stands out from all others regarding the the PTSD numbers. It is called the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War (1956-1975) wasRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder in War Veterans2507 Words   |  11 PagesPOST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER IN WAR VETERANS SC-PNG-0000009299 Alwin Aanand Thomson American Degree Program SEGi College Penang 1.0 INTRODUCTION Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to any event that results in psychological trauma. This event may involve the threat of death to oneself or to someone else, or to ones own or someoneRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder in War Veterans2491 Words   |  10 PagesPOST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER IN WAR VETERANS SC-PNG-0000009299 Alwin Aanand Thomson American Degree Program SEGi College Penang 1.0 INTRODUCTION Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to any event that results in psychological trauma. This event may involve the threat of death to oneself or to someone else, or to ones own or someoneRead MoreThe Effects Of War On Post Traumatic Stress Disorder2302 Words   |  10 Pagesprevalence for substance abuse disorder and post traumatic stress disorder. The direct psychological impact of war can be seen especially in veterans of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom. Around 20 percent of veterans come home with Post traumatic stress disorder, depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and substance abuse disorder which is usually co morbid with the illness. Many veterans, while they are in the service, develop substance dependencies due to the stress of the job. AccordingRead More Implications of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder for War Veterans1577 Words   |  7 PagesImplications of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder for War Veterans War is a complex concept that is increasingly difficult to understand, particularly in an age that allows for live images of combat to be beamed around the world. Many war films depict the brutalities of war and affects war has on participants, but it seems that these representations merely skim the surface. The 20th century is an era that saw a significant amount of military action: World Wars I and II, the Cold War, Vietnam, andRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder Treatment For War Veterans1564 Words   |  7 Pages Post-traumatic stress disorder treatment for war veterans Post-traumatic stress disorder, PTSD is a psychiatric disorder that may develop after experiencing or seeing a traumatic or a brutal life threatening event. It is increasingly on the rise in war veterans. For those with PTSD only 53 percent have seen physicians or a mental health care provider. And for those who sought out care, roughly only 50 percent received adequate treatment when returning from combat. Although there are many treatmentsRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder Among War Veterans2201 Words   |  9 PagesPost Traumatic Stress Disorder among War Veterans Introduction Soldiers from combat missions face a variety of challenges when conforming to a civilian lifestyle. The fact that there are many of the identification issues and the influence of the environment, soldiers tend to exhibit Post-Traumatic stress disorders. The manifestation of the Post-Traumatic disorder PTSD leads to the development of traumatic brain syndrome and other problems. Service men and women have taken part in many war missionsRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder And The Syrian Civil War1631 Words   |  7 Pagescrisis, a vast humanitarian emergency and byproduct of the Syrian Civil War that continues to this day. A year later, video emerged of Omran Daqneesh, a five-year old boy shown sitting in the back of an ambulance, covered in dust and seemingly in shock, blood caked to the side of his face. These photos alone illustrate the deep social need for humanitarian assistance to Syria’s almost five million refugees. With the civil war now in its sixth year, almost 14 million people need assistance withinRead MoreWar and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in The Things They Carried by Tim Obrien1611 Words   |  7 PagesBeing in war is definitely one of the most life changing events a person will ever have whether it be for the better or for the worst. Soldiers will witness events that are impossible to forget or see back at home in the states. Some soldiers may have even seen one of their best friends that they’ve known for forever get blown up into pieces right next to them, or they might even get one of their own limbs blown off of their own bodies, becoming handicapped for life. As a result of seeing something

Application Tips From The MBA Contribution Essay Sample

Application Tips From The MBA Contribution Essay SampleThis MBA contribution essay sample is written for an incoming freshman who is intending to major in the same discipline as he is. This worksheet provides a clear outline of all the theoretical and practical aspects related to the subject. It outlines the career choices a student can choose from depending on his education and experience. It also provides a guide for students to determine the key areas of their life in which they must focus.The MBA contribution essay sample was first written in 2020 by an MBA student who had been assigned to write this term's admission essay. It was designed to serve as a reference guide to help him in the process of preparing for this term's admission essay. The purpose of writing this guide was to establish credibility, thus the writing style is often straightforward and direct.This has been the typical example and form of every MBA admission essay that the students have ever taken. There are som e minor exceptions, such as the MBA degree track that has an entirely different format to the rest of the curriculum. However, the general characteristics of each of the different track have been noticed throughout the years.Before looking at the course work involved in writing this sample, it is important to note that the applicant must demonstrate the leadership and capacity to make decisions that are crucial for making the MBA choice. The essay should address and include those areas in which the student wants to apply in a comprehensive manner. In addition, it should be able to identify the advantages and disadvantages of the discipline, the career path, and various career options that can be considered.It is usually assumed that the application material is only read by the admissions officers. However, many applicants do not realize how they are going to present themselves and their achievements in order to convince them that they have the necessary qualifications to fulfill the job requirements. The sample reflects the common application letter that most students write. It contains a list of academic accomplishments, including grades, and test scores.A few things that are learned through this MBA contribution essay sample are the method of developing sentences that present the applicant's experience, the importance of mentioning the strengths, and using proper terminology. The essay should be specific as far as what the applicant is applying for. In addition, the applicant should know how to craft his own essay. Many students forget to include all the relevant information required, which results in a weak essay.The application is an important part of the interview process and must be put into practice at all times. Those who want to be accepted for the program should be prepared to face any questions that the committee may have. This provides a good format to understand the interview and prepare for the interview. This may include reviewing the applicatio n materials, reading through the interview questionnaires, and preparing your answers.It is often assumed that all students have an analytical mind. The MBA contribution essay sample will help an applicant to learn about the various ways to use his analytic skills. The essay should give an idea of how the applicant uses his analytical skills and how this may be used to help him make a better decision during the interview.

What Can You Do With a Template For College Essay Grading?

<h1>What Can You Do With a Template For College Essay Grading?</h1><p>A layout for school article evaluating rubric can be an incredible assistance on the off chance that you are adhered on what to expound on, what to change in the paper, or which expositions to turn in. There are various online layouts that you can download and use to assist you with reviewing your papers. These articles should be expertly altered before you submit them, so ensure you have the entirety of the sentence structure and accentuation marks right before you start writing.</p><p></p><p>Take a gander at 'The Top-Rated Online Course on Essay Grading,' by Amy Stewart. This format is anything but difficult to peruse and simple to alter. It is additionally substantially more moderate than some different expositions. You'll set aside yourself some cash and time by utilizing this one.</p><p></p><p>The Texas Ed Essay Grader by Linda C. Gill is anothe r incredible format. It tends to be a decent guide when composing your articles, however you can without much of a stretch alter the layouts and change it to meet your needs.</p><p></p><p>The Easy Essay by Lynda. is another famous one, yet it may not be appropriate for everybody. It has the nuts and bolts secured and has a segment where you can place in your references. This implies you will have a reference list, which you can use for future essays.</p><p></p><p>The Canada Ed Essay Grader is an extraordinary layout that has a segment where you can append the chapter by chapter guide. The Canada Ed Essay Grader is useful for the individuals who are less acquainted with school. It doesn't require a great deal of altering and just necessitates that you know somewhat about college.</p><p></p><p>The Basic Grade Grader has a segment that you can put your three most significant focuses in, and afterward your different focuses will come straightaway. It additionally gives you the choice of including or changing your chapter by chapter list. These layouts are useful for the individuals who are simply beginning out.</p><p></p><p>Writing school expositions ought to be fun, and in the event that you follow these formats for reviewing, you will get the best out of your composing experience. Great luck!</p>

Physical Therapy Essay Samples

<h1>Physical Therapy Essay Samples</h1><p>Before you start to compose an active recuperation article, you ought to get all the data that you need about composing a non-intrusive treatment exposition. It is fundamental to hit the nail on the head, particularly for your nursing profession, since you will be working with patients later on. The accompanying sections will give you a few instances of the various types of paper subjects that you can use.</p><p></p><p>There are numerous non-intrusive treatment exposition tests that you can discover on the web. You should painstakingly peruse every one of them. Ensure that they are composed for your particular sort of paper. There are some incredible models out there that can make you increasingly sure when composing an essay.</p><p></p><p>The exposition tests that you find online are frequently fundamentally the same as different models you would discover on the web. Some of t hem likewise accompany test inquiries to assist you with capitalizing on your article. You can rapidly get into your own style by perusing others' essays.</p><p></p><p>The composing that is discovered online is fundamentally the same as the sort of composing that medical caretakers do each day yet is intended for helping patients. Since you will discuss a patient, you will need to have however much data as could be expected about them. The more realities that you can incorporate, the better.</p><p></p><p>Many of the exercise based recuperation paper tests that you find online accompany test inquiries for you to take. The majority of them won't just furnish you with instances of how to compose for a particular point however will likewise tell you how to change your paper and how to move beyond specialized challenges. An elegantly composed paper is simpler to finish and progressively agreeable to read.</p><p></p><p&g t;There are numerous active recuperation exposition tests online that you can browse. While you are doing your exploration, set aside the effort to discover something that you believe is extraordinary. Along these lines, youwill have the option to compose your exposition in less time and won't have to stress over discovering something that will really assist you with your particular research.</p><p></p><p>Use the assets accessible online to become familiar with the various types of article tests that you can discover. You will have a vastly improved possibility of overcoming the procedure quicker and all the more easily when you make the vital changes to your exposition. Ensure that you utilize the entirety of the data that you find to assist you with beginning on your paper composing adventure.</p>

Research Paper Topics For Gun Violence

Research Paper Topics For Gun ViolenceAs you start to work on your next research paper, keep in mind that there are multiple factors that can affect your content. Your topic may be academic or personal, and no matter what the topic, there are numerous research paper topics for gun violence. Take a moment to consider the type of topic that is going to help you get the most out of your research project. You will be surprised at how many things there are to think about, and you can use these tips to determine which is the best topic for you.First, it is important to realize that the main subject of your research paper is very important. Your topic is going to be important because you need to think about it carefully. If you have a research paper topic for gun violence that deals with a particular type of gun, such as a rifle, you will want to look at the types of rifles that are currently available to you and make a note of which are the best for your research. Be sure to mention this f act in your title when you are writing your paper.Next, you should also take into consideration the availability of research paper topics for gun violence. Some topics require specific laws, which may not be easily enforced in some areas. A topic such as this will necessitate researching all available laws, not only in your area but also those of other states, depending on where the shootings occur.Another reason that it is important to choose a topic for your research paper that focuses on gun violence is that the guns used in crimes are often illegal. This means that there may be restrictions placed on the gun that you choose. For example, an AR-15 is considered an assault weapon, even though it is a gun that was designed for home defense. Therefore, choosing a research paper topic for gun violence may be difficult, if not impossible, for your topic.You may also find that there are more options when it comes to researching topics for gun violence. The Internet provides a wealth of information on just about any topic, so why wouldn't you be able to find an excellent topic for your research paper? However, you need to consider the amount of time that you have available to dedicate to your research paper, and you may need a little help from others who have already completed similar projects to see what your choices are.One thing to consider when researching topics for gun violence is the access that you have to the guns that are being used. Be sure to research this issue, especially if you are going to discuss a way to make the guns available to the public. Consider the ease with which guns can be obtained, such as through an unsecured background check, or even a simple purchase at a gun show.Lastly, the type of research paper topics for gun violence that you choose will depend on what is happening in your local community. These types of topics can focus on matters such as whether the number of guns available has increased or decreased over the past few years. They can also look at what types of weapons are commonly used and whether or not there is an increase in violent crime across the nation. In addition, these types of research paper topics for gun violence can look at the role that gangs play in certain cities.Of course, there are other factors that can affect your research paper topics for gun violence. By following these suggestions, you will be better able to choose the perfect topic for your research paper, no matter what your needs or wants are.

GED Sample Essay Topics - How to Choose

GED Sample Essay Topics - How to ChooseGED Sample Essay Topics - How to choose. If you are working on a study abroad program and are looking to impress the staff at your host school or the teacher in your home country, there is a good chance that you will need to write an essay. The assignment may be a simple one - write about your experience studying abroad, but if you can master the art of GED Essay Topics, you could end up with a convincing GED Essay topic that will impress your teachers and potential employers!The question is, how do you go about learning what GED Sample Essay Topics to use? It can be a bit daunting, especially if you've never written an essay before. If you find yourself ready to give up, don't!The first thing you should do is get a good guidebook. These are indispensable for helping you learn how to write a good GED essay topic. You will get everything you need to know on how to work through all the difficult GED Essay Topic areas. Even if you have never though t of a GED essay topic before, you'll find the guidebook's many excellent topics to choose from to be very useful.Another great resource for GED Sample Essay Topics is online forums. Most major forums have plenty of resources that can help you learn the tricks of the trade, such as sample essays, how to write an essay topic on your own, and a lot more.When a student submits their essay, a large percentage of the time, it will be selected. But you can't guarantee this! Some schools use random selection, so it's up to the teachers to decide who goes where. But regardless of what happens, the teachers need to make sure that they have great GED Essay Topics.The more helpful for the instructor is to the student, the more prepared the student will be when they submit their essay. It's important that you show them that you are taking the time to work with them to ensure that your GED Essay Topics are well prepared. Even if you have a great topic, the teachers will be able to tell if your e ssay is so well-crafted and well-organized that it will stand out from all the others.Make sure that your GED Sample Essay Topics are well chosen, well researched, and very impressive. This is one of the most important aspects of preparing for GED exams, so be sure to choose a good GED Essay Topic!

Understanding Change Free Essays

string(114) " focus on social characteristics and ts methodology dedicated to a humanistic approach to change and development\." PART ONE Understanding change Perspectives on change The ethics of organizational change Planned change and its critics Strategic change Building and developing competitive advantage 3 39 73 11 1 147 CHAPTER 1 Perspectives on change 1. 1 Introduction 1. 2 Perspectives on change 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Understanding Change or any similar topic only for you Order Now 2. 1 Modernity, progress, and change 1. 2. 2 Pathways to change 1. 3 Structural-functional change: changing structures and functions 1. 3. 1 An organization is a complex whole 1. 3. 2 Structural theory 1. Multiple constituencies: change by negotiation 1. 4. 1 Stakeholder interests 1. 5 Organizational Development: the humanistic approach to change 1. 5. 1 Intervention strategies at the individual level 1. 5. 2 Intervention strategies at the group level 1. 5. 3 Intervention strategies at the organizational level 1. 6 Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change 1. 6. 1 Conflict, flux, and change 1. 6. 2 People are active agents 1. 6. 3 The critique of the spectator view of knowledge 1. Summary Study questions Exercises Further reading References 4 6 6 7 8 13 16 18 20 22 24 24 25 28 28 29 30 33 35 35 36 36 4 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE 1. 1 Introduction This chapter lays the framework for this book by arguing that organizational change is developed within models and frameworks that in form our understanding of the subject. In this chapter we will learn that knowledge and practice of organizational change are influenced by assumptions derived from the models or perspectives we use. For example, if we regard change as a matter of systemic structural arrangements we can make in an organization, then we can see how the analogy of organism or biological system helps to inform our judgements. Because perspectives offer ways of seeing, they will inevitably organize our perception in line with the dominant analogy used. However, analogies are only partial knowledge claims. Four perspectives on change are cited in this chapter: why four perspectives in particular? The answer to that question is straightforward but you need to understand at this point that a perspective is an overarching approach that contains a variety of theories that have become associated with it. You will see why these are the dominant perspectives once you have read the remainder of this section. First, the structural-functional perspective is the oldest approach to organizational design and therefore change. Like each perspective, it contains a variety of theories that attempted to resolve some of its difficulties as it developed. These theories include the hard systems, systems dynamics, cybernetics, soft systems, criticalsystems heuristics, and postmodern systems thinking (Jackson, 2003). The structuralfunctional perspective encourages us to think about structural arrangements and functional interrelationships within organizations. The development of the opensystems model in the 1950s assisted our understanding further by focusing on how inputs to an organization are transformed into outputs. This is useful for thinking about how we might change tasks and relationships in a production process. The value of the structural-functional perspective lies in its ability to change the arrangement of tasks and procedures in relation to the customer or client specification. The advantage of the perspective lies in its ability to look at an organization as a control mechanism: that is, to understand the important structural components and to articulate the functional interrelationships between the parts. Inevitably, structural redesign will therefore influence the functions that each part produces for the whole. But the perspective has disadvantages also. Because it is a model for controlling operations, it is therefore mechanistic. It tends to ignore how motivations, behaviours, attitudes, and values contribute to effective performance. The multiple constituencies perspective emerged from dissatisfaction with the structural-functional perspective. Although it was initially associated with the work of Cyert and March (1963), it increasingly came to adopt a range of theories associated with the action and motives of individual actors rather than with the action of systems per se. The multiple constituencies perspective refers to the way that complex organizations have to negotiate objectives with different groups of stakeholders who have overlapping and often conflicting needs. When we consider hospitals, health PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE trusts, postal services, public bodies, local government, and transnational companies, then we come to recognize that the organization’s needs are inextricably linked to various stakeholder groups. This affects how resources are managed and distributed, as well as how change might be facilitated to maximize efficiency and effectiveness. An investigation of how multiple constituencies bring their own interests and motivations into the organizational arena will help us to provide an informed approach to managing change by recognizing the various resource needs of different groups. We can recognize the advantage of this perspective in drawing attention to the various stakeholder needs but we can also recognize that it is limited to a partial analysis. It is less concerned with developing people. It also has a limited view of power. Consequently this reduces organizational change to consensual negotiation between pluralities of groups. Those academics and practitioners that adopt the Organizational Development perspective would share much with the two previous perspectives because it embraces both a systems approach and a focus on stakeholders and governance. However, it is distinguished by its methodology of action research as much as it is by its ethical approach to developing organizations through people. For the first time we begin to see people as resources to be developed rather than as simply costs on a balance sheet. This perspective emerged from the human relations approach, which focused on personal and group development. However, unlike the two previous perspectives, it argues that maximum efficiency and effectiveness cannot be achieved by dealing with tasks, procedures, and customers’ or clients’ needs without looking at the quality of management, leadership, communication, culture, motivation, and values. Because the Organizational Development (OD) perspective on change emerged out of human resource theory, it became a synthesis of structural functionalism and behavioural research. The two main contributions of this approach are the focus on social characteristics and ts methodology dedicated to a humanistic approach to change and development. You read "Understanding Change" in category "Essay examples" OD is also associated with the idea of planned change and the need to clearly diagnose clients’ needs before making an intervention. These provide major advantages in thinking about change but they are also partial and limited to conceptualizing change as a matter of consensus, as does each perspective mentioned so far. The final perspective—Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change— reflects the challenges and assumptions of Critical Theory. It cannot be regarded as a unified perspective, as the others can, because it does not seek to offer solutions to change problems. But it does go further than any of the other perspectives in demonstrating that people, rather than systems, are the main element of analysis in any change theory. Each of the other perspectives tends to reify human action. By contrast, this perspective seeks to redress the balance by arguing that people are active agents of change. It also brings another important element under scrutiny. That is, each of the other perspectives focuses on rational change. This has implications for designing and planning change as a linear sequence of events. However, if change programmes ignore emergent processes that result more from conflict, flux, and uncertainty than from consensus and stability, then intervention strategies will have a limited and often 5 6 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE unintended effect. Because this perspective is derived from Critical Theory we should not assume that it is immune to criticism. The main criticism is that it does not offer solutions. It does not provide useful intervention strategies. It does, however, make us stop and think before we act. You should now be clear that each perspective contains a range of theories that share assumptions, methods, and approaches. These can be stated simply as: 1. A focus on systems and structures (the structural-functional perspective). 2. A focus on governance (the multiple constituencies perspective). 3. A focus on behavioural improvement through personal and Organizational Development (the OD perspective). 4. A focus on constant critique (Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change). A simple reminder of the focus is: systems, governance, behaviour, and critique. The argument throughout the book is that to manage change you need to understand these interweaving debates. In this chapter we will: †¢ Explain the benefits and limitations of change contained within the structural-functional perspective. †¢ Examine how a multiple constituencies perspective provides arguments for involving stakeholders in complex change initiatives. Explore the value of human resource and organization development interventions as well as their limitations in planned change initiatives. †¢ Appreciate why organizational change may be characterized better by conflict, flux, and uncertainty. †¢ Consider the source of creativity. †¢ Appreciate the role of Critical Theory in understanding organizational change. 1. 2 Perspectives on change 1. 2. 1 Modernity, progress, and change It is important to contextualize the four perspectives of this chapter by illustrating that each emerged from, or in reaction to, the process of modernism. The term ‘modernism’ was originally used to describe the new machine age of the early twentieth century, which reflected progress through the application of scientific principles, order, and control. Scientific principles emerged from the pursuit of rationality embedded in the philosophy of the Enlightenment. The twentieth century was influenced PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE by progressive movements in art and architecture, but the new age was eventually associated with negative qualities that, paradoxically, were linked to its greatest triumph—the machine age. The new machine age was characterized by large-scale movements, revolutions, and world wars which all proclaimed progress through the application of machine technology or through the metaphor of the machine as the embodiment of efficiency and effectiveness. This was no more apparent than in business and management, where modernity reflected the task of controlling large-scale organizations. Techniques or processes such as bureaucracy, Taylorism, and Fordism came to reflect the new managerialism of the machine age in which the principles of measurement and calculation came to dominate thinking. This emphasis on rational calculation had advantages in the form of mass production of cheap goods but, to achieve this, the human cogs in the machine were alienated by a technology that largely ignored social practices. You should therefore be aware that the structural-functional perspective emerged at the time when modernism suggested progress through the application of rational principles. It should be no surprise, then, that it tended to focus on task and throughput by using the metaphor of organism as machine. The perspective referred to as multiple constituencies emerged in the 1960s. It was the first to challenge the naive rationalism of the structural-functional perspective by arguing that an organization is not equivalent to a biological entity and that therefore the organic model was not appropriate to organizations. An organization was better conceived as a ‘legal fiction’ (Shafritz and Ott, 1991). This had the advantage of persuading us that progress is simply a result of social processes and that all organizations are no more than devices to achieve certain objectives. The perspective helped to establish the idea of change through governance. Organizational Development has been the main tradition of organizational change and has much to recommend it, such as a declared humanistic commitment to change. It has also developed useful techniques and methods, but its use of the biological model limits its critique. The perspective we call ‘Creativity and Volition: a Critical Theory of Change’ is united only by its objection to modernism. It therefore provides a useful counterbalance to the other perspectives by offering criticism of the conventional wisdom. But it also suggests that human volition and creativity are a long way from the modernist assumptions of progress. 1. 2. 2 Pathways to change Each perspective contains theories that lead to a change intervention. The phrase ‘change intervention’ refers to change actions taken at a strategic level to help an organization become more effective. A perspective can therefore be regarded as a model for understanding how a subject can be understood. Advoca tes of a perspective develop theories to inform their views and they construct methodologies to test the accuracy of their various theories within a perspective. However, each perspective is open to criticism precisely because it contains assumptions about organizational reality. Each is therefore valuable as a framework 8 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE Figure 1. 1 Pathways to change STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL CHANGE Change occurs for dysfunctional reasons when internal functions fail or when structures do not reflect the rational design of the best system INTERVENTIONS focus on the alignment of functional relationships and the structural re-design of the system to accommodate changing external environmental conditions MULTIPLE CONSTITUENCIES Change is a negotiated order and organizations are arenas in which internal groups and external stakeholders seek to exert influence INTERVENTIONS focus on contractual relationships. A distinction is made between a formal contract and an informal or psychological contract ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Change is planned once needs are diagnosed INTERVENTIONS focus on both personal and Organizational Development and change CREATIVITY, VOLITION AND CRITICAL THEORY Change results from conflict not consensus INTERVENTIONS are replaced by critical analysis for change, but in the interest of validity we need to be cautious about the claims to certainty that each makes. We would be wise, therefore, to view these perspectives as pathways to understand organizational change. We can take the analogy further and suggest that each perspective represents a pathway through a minefield of conceptual difficulties. Each perspective is illustrated in Figure 1. 1. 1. 3 Structural-functional change: changing structures and functions Structural-functional change is the oldest perspective on organizational change. This perspective is also known as structural-functional analysis. It is effectively a social-systems PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE iew of organizations as opposed to the mechanistic or closed-systems perspective of physics. Henry Fayol was one of the first writers to make the link between structure and function. In his 1916 book General and Industrial Management, he describes the relationship between organizations and biology in terms of an analogy. Thus he points out that, just as organisms evolve and become more sophisticated in their structural properties, s o do organizations. We can see why the organic analogy is important to organizations when we consider Fayol’s description of specialization and differentiation. For example, [s]pecialization belongs to the natural order; it is observable in the animal world, where the more highly developed the creature the more highly differentiated its organs; it is observable in human societies where the more important the body corporate the closer its relationship between structure and function. As a society grows, so new organs develop destined to replace the single one performing all functions in the primitive state. (Fayol, 1916: 19) 9 Thus, as organizations grow and develop, they become much more complex and require new types of structure. In order to deal with this complexity, work has to be simplified through the division of labour. Some years later, structural-functional analysis viewed the study of organizations as the analysis of both structural and functional interrelationships between elements in an organizational system. Structural-functional analysis of an organization begins with the assumption that organizations are cooperative systems. Whilst they are constituted by individuals, this is less relevant than the fact that they are systems designed to coordinate the actions of individuals. They are better viewed, therefore, as adaptive organisms. This means that any organizational system ‘is deemed to have basic needs†¦ related to self-maintenance†¦ and†¦ self-defence’ (Selznick, 1948: 26). Selznick suggests that organizations, as systems, maintain themselves by means of five essential imperatives, described as follows: 1. The security of the organization as a whole in relation to social forces in its environment. This imperative requires continuous attention to the possibilities of encroachment and to the forestalling of threatened aggressions or deleterious (though perhaps unintended) consequences of the actions of others. 2. The stability of the lines of authority and communication. One of the persistent reference points of administrative decision is the weighing of consequences for the continued capacity of leadership to control and to have access to the personnel or ranks. 3. The stability of informal relations within the organization. Ties of sentiment and self-interest are evolved as unacknowledged but effective mechanisms for adjustment of individuals and subgroups to the conditions of life within the organization. These ties represent a cementing of relationships which sustains the formal 10 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE uthority in day-to-day operations and widens opportunities for effective communication. ‘Consequently, attempts to â€Å"upset† the informal structure†¦ will normally be met with considerable resistance. ’ 4. The continuity of policy and of the sources of its determination. For each level within the organization, and for the organization as a whole, it is necessary that there be a sense that action taken in the light of a given policy will not be placed in continuous jeopardy. Arbitrary or unpredictable changes in policy undermine the significance of (and therefore the attention to) day-to-day action by injecting a note of caprice. At the same time, the organization will seek stable roots (or firm statutory authority, or popular mandate) so that a sense of the permanency and legitimacy of its acts will be achieved. 5. A homogeneity of outlook with respect to the meaning and role of the organization. To minimize disaffection requires a unity derived from a common understanding of what the character of the organization is meant to be. When this homogeneity breaks down, as in situations of internal conflict over basic issues, the continued existence of the organization is endangered. On the other hand, one of the signs of a ‘healthy’ organization is the ability to orient new members effectively and readily slough off those who cannot be adapted to the established outlook. (Selznick, 1948) These imperatives are the mechanisms of a stable ‘organic’ system that is applied by analogy to an organization. One particularly relevant assumption of this analogy, and indeed of structural functionalism in general, is that of compulsion. There is little room for individuals to exercise imagination because organizations are viewed as constraining mechanisms that compel people to act in a particular way. When viewed through a structural-functional frame, organizational analysis proceeds by following three basic assumptions, as indicated below. 1. Organizations are cooperative systems with adaptive social structures, made up of interacting individuals, subgroups, and formal and informal relationships. 2. Organizations contain variable aspects, such as goals, which are linked to needs and self-defence mechanisms. 3. Organizations are determined by constraints and characterized by transformations when adjustments to needs are required. Such adjustments are required to deal with dysfunctions caused by instability in the operating environment. The biological sciences were seen as rescuing social science from the laws of traditional Newtonian physics, which saw everything as a closed system (Katz and Kahn, 1966: 16). Consequently, the emergence of the open-systems model, which was influenced by von Bertalanffy’s ‘general system theory’, enables us to view organizations as continuous flows of inputs, transformations, and outputs beyond their own boundaries. In 1966 Katz and Kahn articulated the concept of an organization as an PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE open system. This was reinforced by Thompson’s systems contingency perspective in 1967. What emerged was an idea of an organizational system as an artificial rational construction designed to improve work performance. Unlike the closed systems of physical sciences, social (and biological) systems depend on, and interact with, their external environments. For Katz and Kahn, the main difficulty in proactively managing strategic change results from the fact that organizations have in-built protective devices to maintain stability. Changing these patterns is very difficult. Unintended change often occurs when organizations drift from their original aims. As Katz and Kahn indicate: [t]he major misconception is the failure to recognize fully that the organization is continually dependent upon inputs from the environment and that the inflow of materials and human energy is not a constant. The fact that organizations have built-in protective devices to maintain stability and that they are notoriously difficult to change in the direction of some reformer’s desires should not obscure the realities of the dynamic interrelationships of any social structure with its social and natural environment. The very efforts of the organization to maintain a constant external environment produce changes in organizational structure. The reaction to changed inputs to mute their possible revolutionary implications also results in changes. (Katz and Kahn, 1966: 278) 1 1 The open-systems model expresses the relationship between the elements as indicated by Figure 1. 2. Figure 1. 2 The open-systems model of Katz and Kahn ENVIRONMENT Task Technology INPUTS Human, financial information, materials Management OUTPUTS Products and services Structure People 12 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE The organization has inputs that are then transformed through a variety of management functions. These are designed to achieve the best possible organizational design by coordinating the task, through the use of technology by people who are structured or organized in a way that is both efficient and effective. x Stop and think 1. 1 Identify an organization and illustrate its inputs, outputs, and transformational processes. Provide details on how the internal processes are managed and controlled. Following Katz and Kahn, the open-systems model contains eight characteristics: 1. Importing energy from the external environment. Thus, just as the biological cell receives oxygen from the bloodstream or the body takes in oxygen from the air and food from the external world, the organization draws energy from other institutions. 2. Throughput is a phrase used in many organizations, meaning that, as open systems, organizations transform the energy available to them. Just as the body converts starch and sugar into heat and action, an organization takes raw inputs such as materials and people and transforms them by producing products or services. Katz and Kahn suggest that, just as the personality converts chemical and electrical forms of stimulation into sensory qualities, and information into thought patterns, so the organization creates a new product, or processes materials, or trains people, or provides a service. 3. Output is essentially the service or product. Just as the biological organism exports from the lungs physiological products like carbon dioxide that help to maintain plants in the immediate environment, the organization provides customers with an output they value. 4. Systems are cycles of events in which the product is exported into the environment, where it furnishes sources of energy for repetition of the cycle of activities. Thus energy is the exchange of inputs and outputs with the external environment. For example, raw materials and human labour are turned into products and services, which are then marketed for monetary return, which is then used to obtain more raw materials and labour and perpetuates the cycle of activities. 5. Entropy is a process described by Katz and Kahn as ‘a universal law of nature in which all forms of organization move toward disorganization or death’. For example, ‘all complex physical systems move toward simple random distribution of their elements and biological organisms also run down and perish’. Therefore the survival of the organization requires the ‘arrest of the entropic process’. This is overcome because the organization imports more energy from its environment than it expends. In other words, ‘social organizations will seek to improve their survival position and to acquire in their reserves a comfortable margin of operation’. Organizations do go out of business but they can replenish themselves. As PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE Katz and Kahn point out, ‘social systems, however, are not anchored in the same physical constancies as biological organisms and so are capable of almost indefinite arresting of the entropic process. Nevertheless the number of organizations which go out of existence every year is large. ’ 6. Information input, negative feedback, and the coding process mean that all inputs are also ‘informative in character and furnish signals to the structure about the environment and about its own functioning in relation to the environment’. Furthermore, the ‘simplest type of information input found in all systems is negative feedback’, which ‘enables the system to correct its deviations from course’. Katz and Kahn see this as analogous to the digestive system, in which selective signals are absorbed or assimilated. Terms like adaptation and assimilation reflect the biological analogy because an organization responds only to those signals to which it is adapted, and reacts to the information signals to which it is attuned. Katz and Kahn argue that, rather like the selection process in nature, the term coding reflects the selective mechanisms of a system by which incoming materials are either rejected or accepted and translated for the structure. 7. Organizations, like biological systems, are not motionless, so there can never be a true equilibrium. Instead, we must understand that organizations, like organisms, develop a steady state or ‘continuous inflow of energy from the external environment and a continuous export of the products of the system’. The biological analogy is illustrated by the ‘catabolic and anabolic processes of tissue breakdown and restoration within the body’ that ‘preserve a steady state so that the organism from time to time is not the identical organism it was but a highly similar organism’. Related to this are what they call the ‘homeostatic processes’ for the regulation of body temperature. Thus, as external conditions of humidity and temperature vary, the temperature of the body remains the same because it is regulated by the endocrine glands. The steady state and dynamic homeostasis of organizations are regulated by the organization’s subsystems. . Organizations ‘move in the direction of differentiation and elaboration’. That is, in biological systems genetic change occurs: organisms move from primitive to complex arrangements in order to survive. Similarly, as organizations mature they become increasingly diffuse. Thus they ‘move toward the multiplication and elaboration of roles with greater specialization of function’. 13 1. 3. 1 An organization is a complex whole As Michael Jackson states, ‘a system is a complex whole the functioning of which depends upon its parts and the interactions of those parts’ (2003: 3). Broadly speaking, we can think of three types of system: †¢ Natural biological systems. †¢ Social systems, such as families and religious and political institutions, which are socially constructed entities designed to accommodate relationships between people. 14 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE †¢ Artificial or mechanical systems, such as built environments and information systems, which are designed to make improvements to living or work arrangements. One of the advantages of systems theory, as Jackson informs us, is that it is not reductive. That is, it does not seek to reduce complexity by breaking it down into its component parts. Systems theory seeks to understand phenomena as wholes and consequently the term ‘holism’ is sometimes used to illustrate that a system needs to be seen in its entirety. The idea of holism is articulated by Thompson (1967): Approached as a natural system, the complex organization is a set of interdependent parts which together make up a whole because each contribute something and receive something from a whole, which in turn is interdependent with some larger environment. Survival of the system is taken to be the goal, and the parts and their relationships presumably are determined through evolutionary processes. Dysfunctions are conceivable, but it is assumed that an offending part will adjust to produce a net positive contribution or be disengaged, or else the system will degenerate. Central to the natural-systems approach is the concept of homeostasis, or self stabilization, which spontaneously, or naturally, governs the necessary relationships among parts and activities and thereby keeps the system viable in the face of disturbances stemming from the environment. (Thompson, 1967: 283) Systems theory seeks to explain complex interrelationships among organizational elements and external variables by using quantitative techniques. Because they see them as continually changing dynamic equilibria, systems theorists therefore view organizations as designed to cope with and manage change. An example of this is Weiner’s model of an organization as an adaptive system. Weiner uses the term ‘cybernetics’ (from the Greek for ‘steersman’) to describe a study of structures and functions of control, and information processing systems in both animals and machines. Thus, such systems are able to regulate themselves. In biological systems this is a natural process, whereas an organization’s systems must be designed. The overly mechanistic approach to viewing artificial systems needs to be balanced against two concerns related to the environment in which the organization exists: 1. Organizations are also social systems: any technical system requires people to operate it. Consequently their needs must be designed into the technical system. 2. Organizations have contingencies. In other words, the technology used by the organization, the nature of the industry it operates in, the competences of the PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE staff who work for it, their motivations and leadership are also important contingencies that affect an organization’s performance. Each concern reflects the view that any change interaction must incorporate these constraints into the design of the new (changed) systems model. For example, if an organization is seen as a social system and not simply a technical system, then we must come to recognize the way in which people have to live, work, and engage in some way with the technical system. For systems designers such as architects and computer programmers it is therefore important to involve the people affected by the system. 15 x Stop and think 1. 2 Think of a technical system that you might redesign if asked to do so by an organization. For example, this might be an IT system, a production system, use of a physical space, or an administrative system. If you do not involve in its design the people who will eventually use the system, what negative outcomes might emerge? The link between organizational systems design and contingency theory illustrates how systems theory developed from a simple biological analogy. Galbraith’s (1973) book made a clear link between the functional components, organizational structures, and contingent circumstances of an organization. For example, Galbraith’s approach invites us to look for: †¢ The type and quality of information required in conditions of certainty or uncertainty. †¢ The degree of interdependence between the various functional components. †¢ Mechanisms that enable organizational adaptation. Table 1. 1 illustrates how information within the system affects an organization’s ability to take action towards change. The degree to which hange can be planned depends upon the amount of reliable information in the system. When the quality of information is high, changes can be planned but are unlikely to be major; when conditions are unpredictable, information is unreliable and the degree of success in any change initiative is low. We can therefore state that the greater the level of uncertainty, the more the organization must make provisional judgements and be ready to change things quickly. Contingency theorists who work within this perspective view organizational change as the degree of control an organization has over circumstances. Thus we can formulate a simple question for this purpose: ‘how wide is the gap between the amounts of information required by this organization at this time? ’ If we take the 2008 world banking crisis as an example, we can illustrate this point. During the month of 16 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE Table 1. 1 Control over circumstances: situations where significant change is inevitable The likelihood of major strategic change is low when: The situation is highly predictable. Traditional roles and procedures guide action. The quality of information is high. The likelihood of major strategic change is high when: The situation is not predictable. New procedures are required. The quality of information is low. October 2008, protracted negotiations between President Bush and the US Senate representatives, unhappy with his initial plans, eventually resulted in a rescue package for US banks. This was followed by the British Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, partly nationalizing some UK banks. Members of the G7 countries lowered interest rates around the world at the same time, also attempting to find a coordinated approach to the world economic crisis. The reality was that, at the time, no one could realistically estimate its extent: the information gap was simply too large. No one really knew who owed money to whom; nor did anyone know what impact the banking crisis was likely to have on other sectors of the world economy. Thus, attempting to steer change was impossible because there was insufficient information to make reliable decisions. Although this is an extreme example, many organizations face similar problems to varying degrees. In situations of severe unpredictability caused by lack of information, managing planned change becomes highly problematic. The solution, according to Galbraith, is to find new solutions: The ability of an organization to successfully coordinate its activities by goal setting, hierarchy, and rules depends on the combination of the frequency of exceptions and the capacity of the hierarchy to handle them. As task uncertainty increases, the number of exceptions increases until the hierarchy is overloaded. Then the organization must employ new design strategies. Either it can act in two ways to reduce the amount of information that is processed, or it can act to increase its capacity to handle more information. An organization may choose to develop in both of these ways. (Galbraith, 1973: 312) 1. 3. 2 Structural theory The structures of organizations are considered to be amenable to change. Organizations are viewed as rational and should be designed to achieve their objectives. The Classical School of Management argued that all organizations should be designed scientifically. The main contributors to the school were Henry Fayol, PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE Charles Babbage, Daniel McCullum, Frederick Winslow Taylor, and Max Weber. For these writers, organizational efficiency was achieved through the rational design of organizations. The Classical School assumed that there was a best structure for any organization, related to the environment in which the organization operated. The design of an organization was related to specialization and to the division of labour. Specialization is the extent to which highly skilled operations and individuals are required. Because the design of organizations was seen as a purely rational activity, problems or dysfunctions were seen to result from structural imperfections or flaws that could be solved by changing the organization’s structure. Furthermore, although the Classical School considered that a bureaucratic structure was the best means to achieve efficiency and effectiveness, by the 1950s this view was increasingly challenged. The first challenge emerged with the work of Burns and Stalker (1961), who were interested in the rapidly changing electronics industry in Britain, and in Scotland in particular. Their research revealed that organizations in stable operating environments are heavily dependent on control mechanisms and therefore require mechanistic structures. Conversely, the newer industries based on, or developing, micro-electronic technology required organic structures in order to meet situations that are changing. The message, therefore, was that the rate of organizational change is critical to organizations. Where they have to meet rapidly changing circumstances and conditions, and where technology is critical to their survival, then organic structures need to be designed. This would also be true today of the fashion industry, where styles change quickly and competition for change requires organizations to get goods into the high street quickly. In the following year Blau and Scott (1962) argued that organizations have both a formal structure and an informal aspect to them. The formal structure determines the standard rules and regulations: for example, a highly structured organization operating bureaucratic procedures is managed through complex rules, policies, frameworks, and desk instructions. However, they argued that it is impossible to understand how organizations are structured by simply looking at rules and regulations without understanding the informal aspect of the organization. Their argument was heavily influenced by Barnard’s (1938) book, The Functions of the Executive, and suggested that the informal organization reflects unconscious processes. In other words, habits, attitudes, and assumptions of people are critical to performance. This was clearly an early recognition that change requires more than structural redesign because it suggested that senior managers have to align the structure with what we call today the organization’s culture. The earlier work of Max Weber in the 1920s reflected his concerns with specialization. By the 1960s academics used the word ‘differentiation’ to reflect this but also to indicate how specialization is affected by increasingly complex environments. In relation to organizational change, we can note that the process of differentiation— increased complexity of organization—suggests that diverse forces are responsible for pulling organizations apart. This process of differentiation therefore means that 17 18 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE organizational change is required in order to integrate the organization with its new environment. To put this more succinctly, differentiation requires integration. This particular concern was articulated by Lawrence and Lorsch (1969) in their book, Developing Organizations: diagnosis and action. It also reflects the emphasis on design since change planning is required to deal with uncertainty caused by rapidly changing circumstances. This was reinforced by Davis and Lawrence’s (1977) argument that a matrix organization was required when external change was forced upon organizations. Accordingly, they argue that change in design is therefore determined by three conditions: 1. Outside pressure for dual focus. What they mean by this is that some companies need to focus attention both on complex technical issues and on the unique requirements of the customer; this dual focus requires a matrix structure. 2. Pressures for high information-processing capacity. The second reason to adopt a matrix structure is a requirement for high information-processing capacity among an organization’s members. The failure to construct a matrix organization in such circumstances will lead to information overload. 3. Pressure for shared resources. When organizations are under pressure to achieve economies of scale, they need to find ways of utilizing scarce human resources to meet quality standards. Both systems theory and structural theory share the view that organizations are rational and serve utilitarian purposes. That is, organizations are viewed as a means to achieve efficiency and effectiveness. They do this by identifying clear goals. The structural-functional systems perspective is therefore described as rational because it assumes a relatively simple cause and effect relationship among variables related to functional integration and structural change. As a perspective, it is clear about what it seeks to achieve. Organizational change is relatively straightforward: we either change functional relationships in order to achieve harmony or we change the design of the organization in order to meet the complexity of its environment. 1. 4 Multiple constituencies: change by negotiation In advancing a critique of the structural-functional perspective Michael Keeley (1983) argues that it is common to model organizations after biological systems. In most texts organizations are depicted as ‘social actors’ who possess the distinguishing features of living beings such as goals and needs. By contrast, individuals are portrayed as functional ‘members’ filling roles and serving as ‘human resources’ to further the organization’s ends. The organic model is useful mainly for addressing survival needs, PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE but one difficulty is that it tends to confuse the goals of an organization with the goals of powerful individuals. The structural-functional perspective presents a reified and overrational picture of social systems. By contrast, the multiple constituencies perspective does not assume that organizations exist independently from the people who work for them or interact with them. Multiple constituency theory was first outlined by Cyert and March in their book A Behavioural Theory of the Firm (1963), which describes organizations as coalitions of self-interested participants. Organizational goals, they argue, change as a result of bargaining processes because an organization is a dynamic coalition of individuals and groups, all of which have different demands. The perspective focuses on how goals are achieved and whose interests are satisfied and affected by the actions taken in the name of the organization. If we think, therefore, of an organization containing a number of groups and external stakeholders, all of which have differing interests, then we can consider how organizational change affects each different group, or alternatively how each may make demands on an organization to change its strategy. The multiple constituencies perspective focuses on the way in which resources are managed and distributed among organizational members and stakeholders in the interests of governance. 19 x Stop and think 1. 3 Imagine that you start a new job as a travel executive and are required to visit overseas destinations six times a year. You chose this job because you were excited by the prospect of overseas travel. As an incentive, employees are permitted to stay in the destination for two days after they have completed their tasks. Consequently executives are motivated to choose an interesting destination. Your organization operates from two different sites in the UK. During your first year of employment you hear rumours that the person who allocates staff to destinations ‘cherry picks’ the best for herself and then for friends or colleagues who work with her at the main site. You begin to realize that the rumours have a ring of truth about them. What do you do? Try to ingratiate yourself with the decision maker by becoming friends? Offer to take on more work if she offers you one or two better destinations? Should you take the issue to her line manager at the risk of becoming unpopular? Or do you accept the situation for what it is and that life is not fair? How do you bargain for change? The multiple constituencies perspective criticizes the structural-functional approach for making it difficult to achieve conceptual clarity about what constitutes organizational effectiveness. For example, Connolly, Conlon, and Deutsch argue that effectiveness statements are evaluative and descriptive. Generally they are not attempts to answer the question ‘how is an entity X performing? ’ but usually ‘how well is entity X performing? ’ and often ‘how much better should entity X perform? ’ The central differentiation among current effectiveness statements is how they specify the evaluation criteria used to define how well the entity is performing or could perform (Connolly, Conlon, and Deutsch, 1980: 211). As a result, the multiple 20 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE constituency view treats organizations as systems with differential assessments of effectiveness by different constituencies. Although the interests of internal groups (for example, executives, managers, production workers, and so forth) and external stakeholders (for example, clients, shareholders, government regulators, suppliers, and so forth) may overlap, they each have specific interests and priorities or goals they seek to pursue. Each constituency brings its own interests and motivations into the organizational arena. We can therefore consider organizations as webs of fluid interactions between different groups of people whose interests keep changing. The multiple constituencies approach is therefore a means to identify the actions and motivations of people. More importantly, it reflects organizational change as a continuously negotiable order because interests and coalitions change over time. Although the multiple constituencies perspective originated with Cyert and March, it is rooted in the social contract tradition of political and moral argument. The idea of contract theory emerged in the seventeenth century with the political theorists Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In the twentieth century such theories have become the basis for political theorists (as we will see in Chapter 7) and writers concerned with corporate ethics (see Chapter 2). 1. 4. 1 Stakeholder interests Since stakeholders reflect dynamic interests, change agents need to learn how to interact with them. There are various ways of doing this. For example, Mitroff (1983) suggests seven approaches. These are: 1. The imperative approach, which identifies stakeholders who feel strongly about an organization’s proposed policies or actions. This approach requires making a list of as many stakeholders as possible and interacting with them to resolve concerns. 2. The positional approach, which identifies stakeholders who occupy formal positions in a policy-making structure. For example, health trusts, schools, colleges, universities, and charities are required to have boards of governors who must oversee the operations of such organizations. Many boards of governors can be identified from organization charts or legal documents. 3. The reputational approach entails asking various knowledgeable or important people to nominate those they believe to have a stake in the organization. 4. The social participation approach identifies individuals or groups of stakeholders who may have an interest in a policy-related issue for the organization. For example, members of committees, and people who might normally be excluded because they are not so visible, or who do not normally have the opportunity to articulate their views, will be represented. 5. The opinion-leadership approach identifies individuals who have access to leverage of some sort. Examples include informed professionals, commentators, and editors of important newspapers or journals. PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE 6. The demographic approach identifies stakeholders by characteristics such as age, sex, race, occupation, religion, place of birth, and level of education. 7. The focal organization approach seeks to identify individuals and organizations that have important relationships with the focal organization. That is, suppliers, employees, customers or clients, allies, competitors, regulators. The multiple constituencies perspective suggests that, prior to any change initiative, change agents should analyse the following issues: †¢ The purposes and motivations of a stakeholder. †¢ The resources of a stakeholder. These will include material, symbolic, and physical resources, as well as informational resources and skills. †¢ Special knowledge and opinions of the stakeholder. †¢ Stakeholders’ commitments to the organization and expertise. †¢ Relationships between stakeholders, focusing particularly on the amount of power (or authority), responsibility, and accountability they have. The extent of the network of interdependent relationships among stakeholders. †¢ The extent to which a change in strategy can be identified in the interests of any one particular stakeholder. 21 Such an analysis of stakeholder interests suggests that whilst stakeholders are generally supportive and have an interest in the organization, they can also become a neg ative influence on it. They might indeed reflect a threat and become a barrier to organizational change. Mitroff therefore suggests a number of options for influencing or changing the views and actions of particular stakeholders. We can: †¢ Simply exercise power and authority by ommanding the stakeholder to comply. †¢ Appeal to reason and therefore attempt to persuade the stakeholder. †¢ Engage in tactical bargaining with a stakeholder. †¢ Negotiate in order to reach a compromise. †¢ Engage in problem solving by sharing information, debating, and arriving at mutually agreed perceptions. The multiple constituencies perspective reflects a view of social systems in which people take actions and engage in activities to maximize their own interests. They also collude with others and engage in purposeful activity. Negotiation of organizational change revolves around three central issues: 1. Changing organizational objectives requires that leaders be able to re-evaluate the organization’s current mission, purposes, objectives, and goals, and mobilize action through inspiration. Such leaders need to embrace inspirational leadership. 22 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE 2. The ability to develop and mobilize intellectual capital by using the combined resources held by all stakeholders creatively. This should include the identification and cultivation of scarce resources, skills, and capital. 3. The ability to sustain cooperation and to eliminate conflict among stakeholders so that ethical, moral, and cooperative understanding is achieved. The perspective argues that it is constituencies of people, rather than organizations, that have goals and objectives. Consequently, it moves us away from the problem of reification, because stakeholder interests must be negotiated. Yet it still assumes that people act rationally through an appeal to the common good. The perspective draws us towards interventions that focus on a concern with organizational and personal values, social justice, and the distribution of rights and obligations. It provides a useful way forward for organizations in the public domain that are subjected to public scrutiny through governance. . 5 Organizational Development: the humanistic approach to change Organizational Development (OD) is derived from human resource theory or organizational behaviour. It dates back to the Hawthorne experiments, which began in the Western Electrical Company in 1927. Elton Mayo and his team began these experiments by using the same assumptions as the structural-functional pe rspective: that is, they initially sought to investigate improvements to organizational efficiency by redesigning an organization’s environment along scientific principles. The experiments focused on rational pragmatic concerns such as technology and work performance, the rate of flow of materials, and throughput of a factory system. One can therefore recognize the early development of open-systems theory and structural design within these experiments. Their lack of success meant that the problem of efficiency and effectiveness was refocused towards socio-psychological factors, such as group norms. One interesting source dating back to 1926 was Mary Parker Follett’s description of ‘The Giving of Orders’ (1926). Follett argued that psychology could make an important contribution to understanding motivational relationships in the workplace. One example she discusses is the importance of understanding the law of the situation. Once this is discovered, better attitudes follow. She suggested that giving orders in a positive manner facilitated more harmonious attitudes within the workplace. But related concerns that began with the Second World War later paved the way for a more sophisticated social science concerned with behaviour in organizations. In particular, a concern to identify effective leadership and to enhance workgroup relationships was paramount because of the American army’s focus on morale. As a result, many academics emerged from this tradition with a clear focus on the relationship PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE between leadership, motivation, and group dynamics. The investigation of individual and organizational needs was part of this use of applied social science. An early example was Maslow’s research, which resulted in his paper ‘A Theory of Human Motivation’ (1943). The awareness that human needs impact on organizations was a theme developed further in McGregor’s The Human Side of Enterprise (1957). By the late 1960s and 1970s OD emerged from this behavioural research as a distinct discipline. Whilst it focused on harmonizing individual and organizational needs, it also readily adopted the open-systems framework of the structural-functional perspective. French and Bell (1978) were largely responsible for articulating this approach when they characterized the perspective as a mixture of open-systems theory with humanistic values. Today, we can discern six essential characteristics of OD. These are: 1. A methodology informed largely by Action Research—a term coined by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s. 2. Interventions should only result from careful organizational diagnosis (Tichy, Hornstein, and Nisberg, 1976). 3. A recognition that effective change requires process consultation (Schein, 1995) rather than negotiation through an individual in order to achieve corporate social responsibility in change initiatives. It should be noted that this is in line with OD’s humanistic approach to change. 4. An awareness of barriers to personal growth and organizational change, championed largely by Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (1973). 5. An emphasis on personal and organizational learning in contrast to training, proposed by Reg Revans (1982). 6. A recognition that groups and culture will influence change initiatives, articulated by Lewin (1951) and Schein and Bennis (1965). OD emerged as a distinctive discipline for managing change. It did so initially by adopting experiential approaches such as T-groups (training groups) and Lewin’s Force Field Analysis as a technique for managing organizational transitions. Action Research encouraged employees to develop a collaborative approach to diagnosing problems and engaging in action learning. Argyris’s book on Intervention Theory and Method (1970) is a comprehensive review of process-consultation techniques articulated by Schein (1995) and intervention techniques that became associated with the idea of planned, organization-wide change. Such change strategies were ‘managed from the top’ in order to ‘increase organizational effectiveness and health’ through interventions in the organization’s processes using behavioural science knowledge (Beckhard, 1969). Lewin’s (1951) three stages of change—unfreeze, change, refreeze—reflects the essence of the traditional OD approach through which a clear goal or destination is identified and cascaded to the organization’s members. This has been described as a linear model of change (Marshak, 1993) that tends to omit the 23 24 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE untidy parts of the process that do not fit neatly into Lewin’s framework’ (Inns 1996: 23). Most critics of Lewin’s planned change model make this argument. However, we must be cautious about this since, as we will see in Chapter 3, Lewin did not apply this approach to organization-level change. Often, OD proceeds with problem identification through the app lication of Action Research at the individual, the group, or the organizational level. Following careful diagnosis, intervention strategies are designed to deal with an organizational problem by applying various techniques. At the individual level, behaviour modification theory is often used to encourage personal growth. At the group level, intervention strategies are informed by analysis of group dynamics, whilst at the organizational level, strategic interventions are designed to manage strategic change through the application of technology, structural change, or change to human resources. We can understand how these interventions work by exploring them in greater depth. 1. 5. 1 Intervention strategies at the individual level Strategies at the individual level were influenced by behaviour modification theory. The purpose of this technique is to increase the frequency of desired behaviours and reduce the frequency of undesired behaviours. Behaviour modification therefore seeks to modify the behaviours of individuals by training people to recognize a positive stimulus in order to provoke a desired response. It can also be used to change an individual’s reaction to fears and phobias. Intervention strategies used instead of behaviour modification theory include personal and management development techniques such as Lewin’s Force Field Analysis and learning interventions designed to improve personal learning. Stop and think 1. 4 We rarely remember modifying our own behaviour but we do this all the time. Think about the last time you learned a new skill. How difficult was this at first? During the learning process how did you modify your own behaviour or attitudes? How did evaluation lead to improvement? 1. 5. 2 Intervention strategies at the group level At the group level, interv ention strategies originated from studies of group dynamics including armed forces personnel, industrial workers, and professional groups. Group dynamics was first defined by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s. Observations of groups led Lewin to note that groups develop personalities as a result of their unique composition. Change was therefore more likely when the group as a whole made a collective decision to have its members change their behaviours. This was far more effective in producing the desired changes than more formal techniques such as lectures and PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE instruction. Lewin’s work became the foundation for training in group skills, sensitivity training, teambuilding, and OD. Groups therefore can be a major influence on change, or can inhibit change. However, the capability of a group to respond flexibly to change will depend on the degree to which its members: †¢ Explore problem-solving alternatives. †¢ Are motivated to achieve the objectives of the group. †¢ Make an effort to learn how to change. †¢ Discover what specifically needs to be changed to meet current demands. †¢ Are prepared to experiment. 25 1. 5. 3 Intervention strategies at the organizational level At the organizational level, a greater depth was provided by a focus on planned change interventions. Planned change strategies, according to Chin and Benne (1976), emerged from the Enlightenment tradition with the application of rational thought to interventions in the modern world. In other words, changing things requires an application to reason. Associated with this was the pursuit of social progress. Chin and Benne describe a central element common to all planned change programmes as ‘the conscious utilisation and application of knowledge as an instrument or tool for modifying patterns and institutions of practice’ (1976: 22). Planned change interventions are therefore extremely varied but they fall under three broad headings: 1. Empirical–rational interventions, such as political interventions giving rise to new How to cite Understanding Change, Essay examples